{"id":226,"date":"2022-01-13T23:17:21","date_gmt":"2022-01-13T23:17:21","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/books.gw-project.org\/land-subsidence-and-its-mitigation\/chapter\/occurrence\/"},"modified":"2022-01-14T00:37:27","modified_gmt":"2022-01-14T00:37:27","slug":"occurrence","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/books.gw-project.org\/land-subsidence-and-its-mitigation\/chapter\/occurrence\/","title":{"raw":"1.3 Occurrence","rendered":"1.3 Occurrence"},"content":{"raw":"
\r\n

Land subsidence is perhaps the most widespread and threatening geomechanical consequence of groundwater pumping. When groundwater withdrawals occur in densely populated and highly developed areas underlain by unconsolidated geological basins of alluvial, lacustrine or shallow marine origin, formed typically, although not exclusively, in the Quaternary period land subsidence is likely. Areas located close to the sea or a lagoon or delta are often impacted by subsidence. Quite often, especially at the onset of the occurrence, land settlement goes unnoticed, only to be discovered later on, when severe damage has already taken place. At this stage, undertaking effective remedial measures to mitigate the associated environmental and socio\u2011economic impact may prove tremendously expensive. However, in recent times our awareness concerning the damage threatened by potential anthropogenic land subsidence has significantly grown at both the political and the general public level, thus contributing to lower the alarm threshold. As a major result, the most recent plans for subsurface resource development usually include a study of the related environmental impact presenting, wherever appropriate, numerical predictions of the expected land settlement above (and close to) the exploited system.<\/p>\r\n

Figure\u00a09 shows the areas of major anthropogenic land subsidence due to groundwater extraction worldwide. Table 1 gives the most significant records of the occurrences depicted in Figure\u00a09. The maximum recorded land settlement of all time amounts to more than 14\u00a0m and was due to geothermal water production at Wairakei geothermal field, New Zealand (Allis et al., 2009) as shown in Figure\u00a010a. However, settlement depths approaching 10\u00a0m are not unusual as in the San Joaquin Valley, California, USA (Galloway and Riley, 1999) and as shown in Figure\u00a010 for Mexico City, Mexico (Cabral\u2011Cano et al., 2008; Otiz\u2011Zamora and Ortega\u2011Guerrero, 2010).<\/p>\r\n

\"Map<\/p>\r\n

Figure\u00a0<\/strong>9<\/strong>\u00a0<\/strong>\u2011\u00a0<\/strong>Major worldwide areas of anthropogenic land subsidence due to groundwater withdrawal. Different symbols are used to distinguish cases of subsidence (i) occurring mainly in the past, (ii) still under way, and (iii) associated with ground rupture. 1:\u00a0Wadi Al\u2011Yutamah, Saudi Arabia; 2:\u00a0Anthemountas Basin, Greece; 3:\u00a0Bangkok, Thailand; 4:\u00a0Beijing, P.R. China; 5:\u00a0Celaya, Mexico; 6:\u00a0Eloy Basin, Arizona, USA; 7:\u00a0Hanoi, Vietnam; 8:\u00a0Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam; 9:\u00a0Houston, Texas, USA; 10:\u00a0Jakarta, Indonesia; 11:\u00a0Kolkata, India; 12:\u00a0Las Vegas, Nevada, USA; 13:\u00a0Latrobe Valley, Australia; 14:\u00a0Lorca, Spain; 15:\u00a0Taipei, Taiwan; 16:\u00a0Mexico City, Mexico; 17:\u00a0Ravenna, Italy; 18:\u00a0San Joaquin Valley, California, USA; 19:\u00a0Santa Clara Valley, California, USA; 20:\u00a0Shanghai, P.R. China; 21:\u00a0Su\u2011Xi\u2011Chang area, P.R. China; 22:\u00a0Tehran, Iran; 23:\u00a0Tokyo, Japan; 24:\u00a0Venice, Italy; 25:\u00a0Wairakei, New Zealand; 26:\u00a0Xian, P.R. China; 27:\u00a0Zamora de Hidalgo, Mexico City; 28:\u00a0Tianjin, P.R. China; 29:\u00a0Nile River delta, Egypt; 30:\u00a0Lagos, Nigeria.<\/p>\r\n

\"Total<\/p>\r\n

Figure\u00a0<\/strong>10<\/strong>\u00a0<\/strong>\u2011\u00a0<\/strong>a) Total subsidence at the Wairakei geothermal field over the 1953\u20132005 period. Contour line interval: 1 m; maximum subsidence contour line: 14\u00a0m (after Allis et al., 2009). b) The locations of the monitoring points. c) Multitechnique composite plot of the subsidence in the Mexico City downtown area since 1895. Pre\u20111985 leveling data were collected at selected city landmarks, whereas 1985\u20132002 data were derived from leveling of a modern benchmark network (after Cabral\u2011Cano et al., 2008).<\/p>\r\n

The depth of fluid abstraction wells may range from those tapping very shallow water table aquifers quite close to the ground surface, to those tapping very deep (4000\u20115000 m) gas\/oil reservoirs. The overall extent of the sinking area can be large, totaling as much as 13,500\u00a0km2<\/sup> in the San Joaquin Valley (Poland and Lofgren, 1984) and 12,000\u00a0km2<\/sup> in the Houston\u2011Galveston area of Texas (Gabrysch and Neighbor, 2000. China is perhaps the country with the largest cumulative area of subsidence (about 80,000\u00a0km2<\/sup>) subsurface water overdraft has occurred. Figure\u00a09 also shows the major sinking cities in China (Xue et al., 2005). For an initial review of human\u2011induced land subsidence through illustrative case histories worldwide and more recently from across the United States, the reader may consult Poland (1984) and Galloway et al. (1999), respectively.<\/p>\r\n

Table<\/strong>\u00a0<\/strong>1<\/strong>\u00a0<\/strong>\u2011\u00a0<\/strong>Selected areas of major land subsidence due to groundwater withdrawal worldwide. The time of occurrence is provided between parentheses. Rates represent the local maximum measured rate for the specified period. Negative values indicate uplift.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
#<\/strong><\/td>\r\nLocation<\/strong><\/td>\r\nMaximum subsidence (m)<\/strong><\/td>\r\nMaximum rate (cm\/yr)<\/strong><\/td>\r\nDepth of pumping (m)<\/strong><\/td>\r\nArea of subsidence (m<\/strong>2<\/strong><\/sup>)<\/strong><\/td>\r\nPrincipal references<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
1<\/td>\r\nWadi Al-Yutamah<\/td>\r\n0.3 (1993-1996)<\/td>\r\n-<\/td>\r\n0-150<\/td>\r\n150<\/td>\r\nBanker and Al-Harthia [1999]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
2<\/td>\r\nAnthemountas Basin<\/td>\r\n-<\/td>\r\n3.5 (1995-2001)<\/td>\r\n30-150<\/td>\r\n40<\/td>\r\nRaspini et al. [1933]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
3<\/td>\r\nBangkok<\/td>\r\n2.1 (1933-2002)<\/td>\r\n2 (2005-2010)<\/td>\r\n30-300<\/td>\r\n700<\/td>\r\nPhien-wej et al. [2006]; Aobpaet et al. [1999]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
4<\/td>\r\nBeijing<\/td>\r\n1.1 (1955-2007)<\/td>\r\n5 (2003-2010)<\/td>\r\n20-400<\/td>\r\n4200<\/td>\r\nZhang et al. [2014] Zhu et al. [2014]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
5<\/td>\r\nCelaya<\/td>\r\n3.1 (1985-2008)<\/td>\r\n9 (2007-2011)<\/td>\r\n50-200<\/td>\r\n50<\/td>\r\nHuizar-\u00b4Alvarez et al. [2011]; Chaussard et al. [2014]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
6<\/td>\r\nEloy Basin<\/td>\r\n3.0 (1948-1977)<\/td>\r\n4 (2010-2014)<\/td>\r\n100-760<\/td>\r\n1000<\/td>\r\nHolzer et al. [1979]; Conway [2014]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
7<\/td>\r\nHanoi<\/td>\r\n0.5 (1988-2003)<\/td>\r\n7 (2007-2011)<\/td>\r\n0 - 80<\/td>\r\n35<\/td>\r\nThu and Fredlund [2000]; Dang et al. [2014]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
8<\/td>\r\nHo Chi Minh<\/td>\r\n0.4 (1996-2005)<\/td>\r\n4 (2006-2010)<\/td>\r\n50-240<\/td>\r\n250<\/td>\r\nErban et al. [2014]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
9<\/td>\r\nHouston<\/td>\r\n3 (1915-2000)<\/td>\r\n2.5 (2005-2012)<\/td>\r\n60-900<\/td>\r\n12000<\/td>\r\nGabrysch and Neighbors [2000]; Yu et al. [2014]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
10<\/td>\r\nJakarta<\/td>\r\n4.1 (1974-2010)<\/td>\r\n26 (2007-2011)<\/td>\r\n40-240<\/td>\r\n660<\/td>\r\nNg et al. [2012]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
11<\/td>\r\nKolkata<\/td>\r\n1.1 (1956-2000)<\/td>\r\n4 (2001-2005)<\/td>\r\n50-160<\/td>\r\n150<\/td>\r\nShau and Sikdar [2011]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
12<\/td>\r\nLas Vegas<\/td>\r\n2 (1935-2000)<\/td>\r\n2.5 (1997-1999)<\/td>\r\n200-300<\/td>\r\n250<\/td>\r\nAmelung et al. [1999]; Hoffmann et al. [2001]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
13<\/td>\r\nLatrobe Valley<\/td>\r\n1.3 (1960-1977)<\/td>\r\n1.5 (2006-2011)<\/td>\r\n0-150<\/td>\r\n400<\/td>\r\nGloe [1984]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
14<\/td>\r\nLorca<\/td>\r\n2.2 (1992-2012)<\/td>\r\n16 (1992-2011)<\/td>\r\n50-300<\/td>\r\n140<\/td>\r\nGonzalez et al. [2012]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
15<\/td>\r\nTaipei<\/td>\r\n2 (1955-1991)<\/td>\r\n-0.7 (1989-2003)<\/td>\r\n50-250<\/td>\r\n200<\/td>\r\nChen et al. [2007]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
16<\/td>\r\nMexico City<\/td>\r\n13 (1960 to present)<\/td>\r\n30 (2007-2011)<\/td>\r\n0-350<\/td>\r\n250<\/td>\r\nOrtiz-Zamora and Ortega-Guerrero [2010]; Chaussard et al. [2014]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
17<\/td>\r\nRavenna<\/td>\r\n1.4 (1897-2002)<\/td>\r\n0.2 (1998-2002)<\/td>\r\n80-450<\/td>\r\n400<\/td>\r\nTeatini et al. [2006]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
18<\/td>\r\nSan Joaquin Valley<\/td>\r\n10 (1930 to present)<\/td>\r\n30 (2007-2011)<\/td>\r\n60-600<\/td>\r\n13500<\/td>\r\nGalloway and Riley [1999]; Borchers and Carpenter [2014]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
19<\/td>\r\nSanta Clara Valley<\/td>\r\n4.3 (1910-1995)<\/td>\r\n-0.5 (1992-2000)<\/td>\r\n50-280<\/td>\r\n500<\/td>\r\nSchmidt and Burgmann [2003]; Borchers and Carpenter [2014]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
20<\/td>\r\nShanghai<\/td>\r\n2.6 (1958-2002)<\/td>\r\n1.5 (2006-2011)<\/td>\r\n10-330<\/td>\r\n5000<\/td>\r\nWu et al. [2010]; Dong et al. [2014]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
21<\/td>\r\nSu-Xi-Chang area<\/td>\r\n1.1 (1960-1995)<\/td>\r\n3 (2003-2008)<\/td>\r\n20-200<\/td>\r\n4000<\/td>\r\nShi et al. [2007]; Yu et al. [2009]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
22<\/td>\r\nTehran<\/td>\r\n3.0 (1989-2004)<\/td>\r\n15 (2004-2005)<\/td>\r\n20-100<\/td>\r\n500<\/td>\r\nMahmoudpour et al. [2013]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
23<\/td>\r\nTokyo<\/td>\r\n4.3 (1900-1975)<\/td>\r\n-0.3 (1991-2005)<\/td>\r\n0-400<\/td>\r\n3400<\/td>\r\nSreng et al. [2011]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
24<\/td>\r\nVenice<\/td>\r\n0.12 (1952-1973)<\/td>\r\n0.1 (2008-2011)<\/td>\r\n70-350<\/td>\r\n150<\/td>\r\nGambolati et al. [1974]; Teatini et al. [2012]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
25<\/td>\r\nWairakei<\/td>\r\n14.5 (1950 to present)<\/td>\r\n9 (2000-2007)<\/td>\r\n250-800<\/td>\r\n25<\/td>\r\nAllis et al. [2009]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
26<\/td>\r\nXian<\/td>\r\n2.3 (1959-1995)<\/td>\r\n11 (2005-2012)<\/td>\r\n50-370<\/td>\r\n240<\/td>\r\nZhao et al. [2008]; Qu et al. [2014]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
27<\/td>\r\nZamora de Hidalgo<\/td>\r\n-<\/td>\r\n18 (2007-2011)<\/td>\r\n0-300<\/td>\r\n15<\/td>\r\nChaussard et al. [2014]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
28<\/td>\r\nTianjin<\/td>\r\n3.2 (1959-2007)<\/td>\r\n11 (1975-1985)<\/td>\r\n0-550<\/td>\r\n8000<\/td>\r\nYi et al. [2011]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
29<\/td>\r\nNile River delta<\/td>\r\n-<\/td>\r\n1 (2004-2010)<\/td>\r\n20-200<\/td>\r\n4800<\/td>\r\nGebremichael et al. [2018]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
30<\/td>\r\nLagos<\/td>\r\n-<\/td>\r\n0.6 (2011-2018)<\/td>\r\n50-200<\/td>\r\n350<\/td>\r\nCian et al. [2019]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n

<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"

\n

Land subsidence is perhaps the most widespread and threatening geomechanical consequence of groundwater pumping. When groundwater withdrawals occur in densely populated and highly developed areas underlain by unconsolidated geological basins of alluvial, lacustrine or shallow marine origin, formed typically, although not exclusively, in the Quaternary period land subsidence is likely. Areas located close to the sea or a lagoon or delta are often impacted by subsidence. Quite often, especially at the onset of the occurrence, land settlement goes unnoticed, only to be discovered later on, when severe damage has already taken place. At this stage, undertaking effective remedial measures to mitigate the associated environmental and socio\u2011economic impact may prove tremendously expensive. However, in recent times our awareness concerning the damage threatened by potential anthropogenic land subsidence has significantly grown at both the political and the general public level, thus contributing to lower the alarm threshold. As a major result, the most recent plans for subsurface resource development usually include a study of the related environmental impact presenting, wherever appropriate, numerical predictions of the expected land settlement above (and close to) the exploited system.<\/p>\n

Figure\u00a09 shows the areas of major anthropogenic land subsidence due to groundwater extraction worldwide. Table 1 gives the most significant records of the occurrences depicted in Figure\u00a09. The maximum recorded land settlement of all time amounts to more than 14\u00a0m and was due to geothermal water production at Wairakei geothermal field, New Zealand (Allis et al., 2009) as shown in Figure\u00a010a. However, settlement depths approaching 10\u00a0m are not unusual as in the San Joaquin Valley, California, USA (Galloway and Riley, 1999) and as shown in Figure\u00a010 for Mexico City, Mexico (Cabral\u2011Cano et al., 2008; Otiz\u2011Zamora and Ortega\u2011Guerrero, 2010).<\/p>\n

\"Map<\/p>\n

Figure\u00a0<\/strong>9<\/strong>\u00a0<\/strong>\u2011\u00a0<\/strong>Major worldwide areas of anthropogenic land subsidence due to groundwater withdrawal. Different symbols are used to distinguish cases of subsidence (i) occurring mainly in the past, (ii) still under way, and (iii) associated with ground rupture. 1:\u00a0Wadi Al\u2011Yutamah, Saudi Arabia; 2:\u00a0Anthemountas Basin, Greece; 3:\u00a0Bangkok, Thailand; 4:\u00a0Beijing, P.R. China; 5:\u00a0Celaya, Mexico; 6:\u00a0Eloy Basin, Arizona, USA; 7:\u00a0Hanoi, Vietnam; 8:\u00a0Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam; 9:\u00a0Houston, Texas, USA; 10:\u00a0Jakarta, Indonesia; 11:\u00a0Kolkata, India; 12:\u00a0Las Vegas, Nevada, USA; 13:\u00a0Latrobe Valley, Australia; 14:\u00a0Lorca, Spain; 15:\u00a0Taipei, Taiwan; 16:\u00a0Mexico City, Mexico; 17:\u00a0Ravenna, Italy; 18:\u00a0San Joaquin Valley, California, USA; 19:\u00a0Santa Clara Valley, California, USA; 20:\u00a0Shanghai, P.R. China; 21:\u00a0Su\u2011Xi\u2011Chang area, P.R. China; 22:\u00a0Tehran, Iran; 23:\u00a0Tokyo, Japan; 24:\u00a0Venice, Italy; 25:\u00a0Wairakei, New Zealand; 26:\u00a0Xian, P.R. China; 27:\u00a0Zamora de Hidalgo, Mexico City; 28:\u00a0Tianjin, P.R. China; 29:\u00a0Nile River delta, Egypt; 30:\u00a0Lagos, Nigeria.<\/p>\n

\"Total<\/p>\n

Figure\u00a0<\/strong>10<\/strong>\u00a0<\/strong>\u2011\u00a0<\/strong>a) Total subsidence at the Wairakei geothermal field over the 1953\u20132005 period. Contour line interval: 1 m; maximum subsidence contour line: 14\u00a0m (after Allis et al., 2009). b) The locations of the monitoring points. c) Multitechnique composite plot of the subsidence in the Mexico City downtown area since 1895. Pre\u20111985 leveling data were collected at selected city landmarks, whereas 1985\u20132002 data were derived from leveling of a modern benchmark network (after Cabral\u2011Cano et al., 2008).<\/p>\n

The depth of fluid abstraction wells may range from those tapping very shallow water table aquifers quite close to the ground surface, to those tapping very deep (4000\u20115000 m) gas\/oil reservoirs. The overall extent of the sinking area can be large, totaling as much as 13,500\u00a0km2<\/sup> in the San Joaquin Valley (Poland and Lofgren, 1984) and 12,000\u00a0km2<\/sup> in the Houston\u2011Galveston area of Texas (Gabrysch and Neighbor, 2000. China is perhaps the country with the largest cumulative area of subsidence (about 80,000\u00a0km2<\/sup>) subsurface water overdraft has occurred. Figure\u00a09 also shows the major sinking cities in China (Xue et al., 2005). For an initial review of human\u2011induced land subsidence through illustrative case histories worldwide and more recently from across the United States, the reader may consult Poland (1984) and Galloway et al. (1999), respectively.<\/p>\n

Table<\/strong>\u00a0<\/strong>1<\/strong>\u00a0<\/strong>\u2011\u00a0<\/strong>Selected areas of major land subsidence due to groundwater withdrawal worldwide. The time of occurrence is provided between parentheses. Rates represent the local maximum measured rate for the specified period. Negative values indicate uplift.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
#<\/strong><\/td>\nLocation<\/strong><\/td>\nMaximum subsidence (m)<\/strong><\/td>\nMaximum rate (cm\/yr)<\/strong><\/td>\nDepth of pumping (m)<\/strong><\/td>\nArea of subsidence (m<\/strong>2<\/strong><\/sup>)<\/strong><\/td>\nPrincipal references<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
1<\/td>\nWadi Al-Yutamah<\/td>\n0.3 (1993-1996)<\/td>\n–<\/td>\n0-150<\/td>\n150<\/td>\nBanker and Al-Harthia [1999]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
2<\/td>\nAnthemountas Basin<\/td>\n–<\/td>\n3.5 (1995-2001)<\/td>\n30-150<\/td>\n40<\/td>\nRaspini et al. [1933]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
3<\/td>\nBangkok<\/td>\n2.1 (1933-2002)<\/td>\n2 (2005-2010)<\/td>\n30-300<\/td>\n700<\/td>\nPhien-wej et al. [2006]; Aobpaet et al. [1999]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
4<\/td>\nBeijing<\/td>\n1.1 (1955-2007)<\/td>\n5 (2003-2010)<\/td>\n20-400<\/td>\n4200<\/td>\nZhang et al. [2014] Zhu et al. [2014]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
5<\/td>\nCelaya<\/td>\n3.1 (1985-2008)<\/td>\n9 (2007-2011)<\/td>\n50-200<\/td>\n50<\/td>\nHuizar-\u00b4Alvarez et al. [2011]; Chaussard et al. [2014]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
6<\/td>\nEloy Basin<\/td>\n3.0 (1948-1977)<\/td>\n4 (2010-2014)<\/td>\n100-760<\/td>\n1000<\/td>\nHolzer et al. [1979]; Conway [2014]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
7<\/td>\nHanoi<\/td>\n0.5 (1988-2003)<\/td>\n7 (2007-2011)<\/td>\n0 – 80<\/td>\n35<\/td>\nThu and Fredlund [2000]; Dang et al. [2014]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
8<\/td>\nHo Chi Minh<\/td>\n0.4 (1996-2005)<\/td>\n4 (2006-2010)<\/td>\n50-240<\/td>\n250<\/td>\nErban et al. [2014]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
9<\/td>\nHouston<\/td>\n3 (1915-2000)<\/td>\n2.5 (2005-2012)<\/td>\n60-900<\/td>\n12000<\/td>\nGabrysch and Neighbors [2000]; Yu et al. [2014]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
10<\/td>\nJakarta<\/td>\n4.1 (1974-2010)<\/td>\n26 (2007-2011)<\/td>\n40-240<\/td>\n660<\/td>\nNg et al. [2012]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
11<\/td>\nKolkata<\/td>\n1.1 (1956-2000)<\/td>\n4 (2001-2005)<\/td>\n50-160<\/td>\n150<\/td>\nShau and Sikdar [2011]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
12<\/td>\nLas Vegas<\/td>\n2 (1935-2000)<\/td>\n2.5 (1997-1999)<\/td>\n200-300<\/td>\n250<\/td>\nAmelung et al. [1999]; Hoffmann et al. [2001]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
13<\/td>\nLatrobe Valley<\/td>\n1.3 (1960-1977)<\/td>\n1.5 (2006-2011)<\/td>\n0-150<\/td>\n400<\/td>\nGloe [1984]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
14<\/td>\nLorca<\/td>\n2.2 (1992-2012)<\/td>\n16 (1992-2011)<\/td>\n50-300<\/td>\n140<\/td>\nGonzalez et al. [2012]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
15<\/td>\nTaipei<\/td>\n2 (1955-1991)<\/td>\n-0.7 (1989-2003)<\/td>\n50-250<\/td>\n200<\/td>\nChen et al. [2007]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
16<\/td>\nMexico City<\/td>\n13 (1960 to present)<\/td>\n30 (2007-2011)<\/td>\n0-350<\/td>\n250<\/td>\nOrtiz-Zamora and Ortega-Guerrero [2010]; Chaussard et al. [2014]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
17<\/td>\nRavenna<\/td>\n1.4 (1897-2002)<\/td>\n0.2 (1998-2002)<\/td>\n80-450<\/td>\n400<\/td>\nTeatini et al. [2006]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
18<\/td>\nSan Joaquin Valley<\/td>\n10 (1930 to present)<\/td>\n30 (2007-2011)<\/td>\n60-600<\/td>\n13500<\/td>\nGalloway and Riley [1999]; Borchers and Carpenter [2014]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
19<\/td>\nSanta Clara Valley<\/td>\n4.3 (1910-1995)<\/td>\n-0.5 (1992-2000)<\/td>\n50-280<\/td>\n500<\/td>\nSchmidt and Burgmann [2003]; Borchers and Carpenter [2014]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
20<\/td>\nShanghai<\/td>\n2.6 (1958-2002)<\/td>\n1.5 (2006-2011)<\/td>\n10-330<\/td>\n5000<\/td>\nWu et al. [2010]; Dong et al. [2014]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
21<\/td>\nSu-Xi-Chang area<\/td>\n1.1 (1960-1995)<\/td>\n3 (2003-2008)<\/td>\n20-200<\/td>\n4000<\/td>\nShi et al. [2007]; Yu et al. [2009]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
22<\/td>\nTehran<\/td>\n3.0 (1989-2004)<\/td>\n15 (2004-2005)<\/td>\n20-100<\/td>\n500<\/td>\nMahmoudpour et al. [2013]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
23<\/td>\nTokyo<\/td>\n4.3 (1900-1975)<\/td>\n-0.3 (1991-2005)<\/td>\n0-400<\/td>\n3400<\/td>\nSreng et al. [2011]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
24<\/td>\nVenice<\/td>\n0.12 (1952-1973)<\/td>\n0.1 (2008-2011)<\/td>\n70-350<\/td>\n150<\/td>\nGambolati et al. [1974]; Teatini et al. [2012]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
25<\/td>\nWairakei<\/td>\n14.5 (1950 to present)<\/td>\n9 (2000-2007)<\/td>\n250-800<\/td>\n25<\/td>\nAllis et al. [2009]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
26<\/td>\nXian<\/td>\n2.3 (1959-1995)<\/td>\n11 (2005-2012)<\/td>\n50-370<\/td>\n240<\/td>\nZhao et al. [2008]; Qu et al. [2014]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
27<\/td>\nZamora de Hidalgo<\/td>\n–<\/td>\n18 (2007-2011)<\/td>\n0-300<\/td>\n15<\/td>\nChaussard et al. [2014]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
28<\/td>\nTianjin<\/td>\n3.2 (1959-2007)<\/td>\n11 (1975-1985)<\/td>\n0-550<\/td>\n8000<\/td>\nYi et al. [2011]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
29<\/td>\nNile River delta<\/td>\n–<\/td>\n1 (2004-2010)<\/td>\n20-200<\/td>\n4800<\/td>\nGebremichael et al. [2018]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
30<\/td>\nLagos<\/td>\n–<\/td>\n0.6 (2011-2018)<\/td>\n50-200<\/td>\n350<\/td>\nCian et al. [2019]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

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