9. References

Aeschbach‑Hertig, W., Beyerle, U., Holocher, J., Peeters, F., & Kipfer, R. (2002). Excess air in groundwater as a potential indicator of past environmental changes. Study of environmental change using isotope techniques. In International Atomic Energy Agency (Ed.),. Study of environmental change using isotope techniques: Proceedings of an international conference held in Vienna, Austria, April 23–27, 2001 (pp. 174–183). Universität Konstanz. http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bsz:352-243968↗.

Aeschbach‑Hertig, W., El‑Gamal, H., Wieser, M., & Palcsu, L. (2008). Modeling excess air and degassing in groundwater by equilibrium partitioning with a gas phase. Water Resources Research, 44(8), W08449. https://doi.org/10.1029/2007WR006454↗.

Aeschbach‑Hertig, W., Peeters, F., Beyerle, U., & Kipfer, R. (1999). Interpretation of dissolved atmospheric noble gases in natural waters. Water Resources Research, 35(9), 2779–2792. https://doi.org/10.1029/1999WR900130↗.

Aeschbach‑Hertig, W., Peeters, F., Beyerle, U., & Kipfer, R. (2000). Palaeotemperature reconstruction from noble gases in ground water taking into account equilibration with entrapped air. Nature, 405(6790), 1040–1044. https://doi.org/10.1038/35016542↗.

Aeschbach‑Hertig, W., & Solomon, D. K. (2013). Noble gas thermometry in groundwater hydrology. In: P. Burnard (Ed.), The noble gases as geochemical tracers. Advances in isotope geochemistry (pp. 81–122). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-28836-4_5↗.

Allison, G.B., & Hughes, M.W. (1977). The history of tritium fallout in southern Australia as inferred from rainfall and wine samples. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 36(2), 334–340.

Andrews, J. N., & Kay, R. L. F. (1982). Natural production of tritium in permeable rocks. Nature, 298(5872), 361–363. https://doi.org/10.1038/298361a0↗.

Andrews, J. N., & Lee, D. J. (1979). Inert gases in groundwater from the Bunter Sandstone of England as indicators of age and paleoclimatic trends. Journal of Hydrology, 41(3–4), 233–252. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(79)90064-7↗.

Antoine, C. (1888), Tensions des vapeurs; Nouvelle relation entre les tensions et les températures [Vapor pressure: A new relationship between pressure and temperature]. Comptes Rendus des Séances de l’Académie des Sciences (in French), 107: 681–684, 778–780, 836–837.

Archbold, M. E., Elliot, T., & Kalin, R. M. (2012). Carbon isotopic fractionation of CFCs during abiotic and biotic degradation. Environmental Science & Technology, 46(3), 1764–1773. https://doi.org/10.1021/es203386a↗.

Harnisch, J., & Eisenhauer, A. (1998). Natural CF4 and SF6 on Earth. Geophysical Research Letters, 25(13), 2401-2404.

Ballentine, C. J., & Hall, C. M. (1999). Determining paleotemperature and other variables by using an error‑weighted, nonlinear inversion of noble gas concentrations in water. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 63(16), 2315–2336. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7037(99)00131-3↗.

Begemann, F., & Libby, W. F. (1957). Continental water balance, ground water inventory and storage times, surface ocean mixing rates and world-wide water circulation patterns from cosmic-ray and bomb tritium. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 12(4), 277-296.

Beyerle, U., Rueedi, J., Leuenberger, M., Aeschbach‑Hertig, W., Peeters, F., Kipfer, R., & Dodo, A. (2003). Evidence for periods of wetter and cooler climate in the Sahel between 6 and 40 kyr BP derived from groundwater. Geophysical Research Letters, 30(4).

https://doi.org/10.1029/2002GL016310↗.

Böhlke, J. K. (2002). Groundwater recharge and agricultural contamination. Hydrogeology Journal, 10, 153–179. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-001-0183-3↗.

Böhlke, J. K., & Denver, J. M. (1995). Combined use of groundwater dating, chemical, and isotopic analyses to resolve the history and fate of nitrate contamination in two agricultural watersheds, Atlantic coastal plain, Maryland. Water Resources Research, 31(9), 2319–2339. https://doi.org/10.1029/95WR01584↗.

Böhlke, J. K., Jurgens, B. C., Uselmann, D. J., & Eberts, S. M. (2014). Educational webtool illustrating groundwater age effects on contaminant trends in wells. Groundwater, 52(S1), 8–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/gwat.12261↗.

Böhlke, J. K., Verstraeten, I. M., & Kraemer, T. F. (2007). Effects of surface‑water irrigation on sources, fluxes, and residence times of water, nitrate, and uranium in an alluvial aquifer. Applied Geochemistry, 22(1), 152–174.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2006.08.019↗.

Brown, R. M., & Barry, P. J. (1979). A review of HTO evaporation studies at Chalk River Nuclear Laboratories. Isotopes in lake studies. In International Atomic Energy Agency (Ed)., Advisory group meeting on the application of nuclear techniques to the study of lake dynamics: Panel proceedings series (pp. 73–86). Vienna, Austria, 29 August–2 September 1977.

Bu, X., & Warner, M. J. (1995). Solubility of chlorofluorocarbon 113 in water and seawater. Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers, 42(7), 1151-1161.

Bullister, J. L., & Weiss, R. F. (1988). Determination of CCl3F and CCl2F2 in seawater and air. Deep Sea Research Part A. Oceanographic Research Papers, 35(5), 839-853.

Bullister, J. L. (1989). Chlorofluorocarbons as time‑dependent tracers in the ocean. Oceanography, 2(2), 12–17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43925263↗.

Bullister, J. L., & Wisegarver, D. P. (2008). The shipboard analysis of trace levels of sulfur hexafluoride, chlorofluorocarbon‑11 and chlorofluorocarbon‑12 in seawater. Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers, 55(8), 1063–1074.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr.2008.03.014↗.

Bullister, J. L., Wisegarver, D. P., & Menzia, F. A. (2002). The solubility of sulfur hexafluoride in water and seawater. Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers, 49(1), 175–187. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0967-0637(01)00051-6↗.

Busenberg, E., & Plummer, L. N. (1992). Use of chlorofluorocarbons (CCl3F and CCl2F2) as hydrologic tracers and age‑dating tools: The alluvium and terrace system of central Oklahoma. Water Resources Research, 28(9), 2257-2283.

https://doi.org/10.1029/92WR01263↗.

Busenberg, E., & Plummer, L. N. (1997). Use of sulfur hexafluoride as a dating tool and as a tracer of igneous and volcanic fluids in ground water, Geological Society of America Abstracts of Programs, 296, A‑78, 1997.

Busenberg, E., & Plummer, L. N. (2000). Dating young groundwater with sulfur hexafluoride: Natural and anthropogenic sources of sulfur hexafluoride. Water Resources Research, 36(10), 3011–3030. https://doi.org/10.1029/2000WR900151↗.

Busenberg, E., & Plummer, L. N. (2010). A rapid method for the measurement of sulfur hexafluoride ([latex]{SF}_{6}[/latex]), trifluoromethyl sulfur pentafluoride ([latex]{SF}_{5}{CF}_{3}[/latex]), and Halon 1211 [latex]({CF}_{2}[/latex]ClBr) in hydrologic tracer studies. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 11(11), Q11001. https://doi.org/10.1029/2010GC003312↗.

Busenberg, E., Plummer, L. N., Cook, P. G., Solomon, D. K., Han, L. F., Gröning, M., & Oster, H. (2006). Sampling and analytical methods. International Atomic Energy Agency. http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub1238_web.pdf↗.

Cauquoin, A., Jean‑Baptiste, P., Risi, C., Fourré, É., Stenni, B., & Landais, A. (2015). The global distribution of natural tritium in precipitation simulated with an Atmospheric General Circulation Model and comparison with observations. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 427, 160–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2015.06.043↗.

Cey, B. D., Hudson, G. B., Moran, J. E., & Scanlon, B. R. (2008). Impact of artificial recharge on dissolved noble gases in groundwater in California. Environmental Science & Technology, 42(4), 1017–1023. https://doi.org/10.1021/es0706044↗.

Ciccioli, P., Cooper, W. T., Hammer, P. M., & Hayes, J. M. (1980). Organic solute‑mineral surface interactions: A new method for the determination of groundwater velocities. Water Resources Research, 16(1), 217–223. https://doi.org/10.1029/WR016i001p00217↗.

Clark, J. F., Wanninkhof, R. I. K., Schlosser, P., & Simpson, H. J. (1994). Gas exchange rates in the tidal Hudson River using a dual tracer technique. Tellus B: Chemical and Physical Meteorology, 46(4), 274–285. https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusb.v46i4.15802↗.

Clever, H. L. (Ed.). (1979). IUPAC solubility data series, Vol. 2: Krypton, xenon and radon—Gas solubilities. Pergamon.

Cook, P. G. (2020). Introduction to isotopes and environmental tracers as indicators of groundwater flow. The Groundwater Project. https://doi.org/10.21083/978-1-7770541-8-2↗.

Cook, P. G., & Dogramaci, S. (2019). Estimating recharge from recirculated groundwater with dissolved gases: An end‑member mixing analysis. Water Resources Research, 55(7), 5468–5486. https://doi.org/10.1029/2019WR025012↗.

Cook, P. G., Lamontagne, S., Berhane, D., & Clark, J. F. (2006). Quantifying groundwater discharge to Cockburn River, southeastern Australia, using dissolved gas tracers [latex]_{}^{222}{Rn}[/latex] and [latex]{SF}_{6}[/latex]. Water Resources Research, 42(10), W10411.

https://doi.org/10.1029/2006WR004921↗.

Cook, P. G., Plummer, L. N., Busenberg, E., Solomon, D. K., & Han, L. F. (2006). Effects and processes that can modify apparent CFC age. In International Atomic Energy Agency (Ed.), Use of chlorofluorocarbons in hydrology: A guidebook (pp. 31–58). International Atomic Energy Agency.

http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub1238_web.pdf↗.

Cook, P. G., Solomon, D. K., Plummer, L. N., Busenberg, E., & Schiff, S. L. (1995). Chlorofluorocarbons as tracers of groundwater transport processes in a shallow, silty sand aquifer. Water Resources Research, 31(3), 425–434.

https://doi.org/10.1029/94WR02528↗.

Copia, L., Wassenaar, L. I., Terzer‑Wassmuth, S., Belachew, D. L., & Araguás‑Araguás, L. J. (2021). Comparative evaluation of [latex]_{}^{2}H[/latex]-versus [latex]_{}^{3}H[/latex]‑based enrichment factor determination on the uncertainty and accuracy of low‑level tritium analyses of environmental waters. Applied Radiation and Isotopes, 176, 109850.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apradiso.2021.109850↗.

Copia, L., Wassenaar, L. I., Terzer‑Wassmuth, S., Hillegonds, D. J., Klaus, P. M., & Araguás‑Araguás, L. J. (2020). Proficiency testing of 78 international laboratories measuring tritium in environmental waters by decay counting and mass spectrometry for age dating and water resources assessment. Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry, 34(17), e8832. https://doi.org/10.1002/rcm.8832↗.

Davis, S. N., & Murphy, E. (1987). Dating ground water and the evaluation of repositories for radioactive waste. United States.

Drever, J. I. (1988). The geochemistry of natural waters (Vol. 437). Prentice Hall.

Eastoe, C. J., Watts, C. J., Ploughe, M., & Wright, W. E. (2012). Future use of tritium in mapping pre‑bomb groundwater volumes. Groundwater, 50(1), 87–93.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.2011.00806.x↗.

Ekwurzel, B., Schlosser, P., Smethie, W. M., Jr., Plummer, L. N., Busenberg, E., Michel, R. L.,… & Stute, M. (1994). Dating of shallow groundwater: Comparison of the transient tracers [latex]\frac{_{}^{3}H}{_{}^{3}{He}}[/latex], chlorofluorocarbons, and 85Kr. Water Resources Research, 30(6), 1693–1708. https://doi.org/10.1029/94WR00156↗.

Gardner, P., & Solomon, D. K. (2009). An advanced passive diffusion sampler for the determination of dissolved gas concentrations. Water Resources Research, 45(6), W06423. https://doi.org/10.1029/2008WR007399↗.

Garrels, R. M., & Christ, C. L. (1965). Solutions, minerals and equilibria. Harper & Row.

Gilmore, T., Cherry, M., Gastmans, D., Humphrey, E., & Solomon, D. K. (2021). The [latex]\frac{_{}^{3}H}{_{}^{3}{He}}[/latex] groundwater age‑dating method and applications. Derbyana, 42, 1–23.

https://doi.org/10.14295/derb.v42.740↗.

Gilmore, T. E., Genereux, D. P., Solomon, D. K., Farrell, K. M., & Mitasova, H. (2016). Quantifying an aquifer nitrate budget and future nitrate discharge using field data from streambeds and well nests. Water Resources Research, 52(11), 9046–9065.

https://doi.org/10.1002/2016WR018976↗.

Gilmore, T. E., Genereux, D. P., Solomon, D. K., & Solder, J. E. (2016). Groundwater transit time distribution and mean from streambed sampling in an agricultural coastal plain watershed, North Carolina, USA. Water Resources Research, 52(3), 2025–2044.

https://doi.org/10.1002/2015WR017600↗.

Hall, C. M., Castro, M. C., Lohmann, K. C., & Ma, L. (2005). Noble gases and stable isotopes in a shallow aquifer in southern Michigan: Implications for noble gas paleotemperature reconstructions for cool climates. Geophysical Research Letters, 32(18), L18404. https://doi.org/10.1029/2005GL023582↗.

Han, L. F., Gröning, M., Plummer, L. N., & Solomon, D. K. (2006). Comparison of the CFC technique with other techniques ([latex]_{}^{3}H[/latex], [latex]\frac{_{}^{3}H}{_{}^{3}{He}}[/latex], [latex]_{}^{85}{Kr}[/latex]). In International Atomic Energy Agency (Ed.), Use of chlorofluorocarbons in hydrology: A guidebook (pp. 191–198). IAEA. http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub1238_web.pdf↗.

Harms, P. A., Visser, A., Moran, J. E., & Esser, B. K. (2016). Distribution of tritium in precipitation and surface water in California. Journal of Hydrology, 534, 63-72.

Harnisch, J., & Eisenhauer, A. (1998). Natural [latex]{CF}_{4}[/latex] and [latex]{SF}_{6}[/latex] on Earth. Geophysical Research Letters, 25(13), 2401–2404. https://doi.org/10.1029/98GL01779↗.

Hartley, D. E., Kindler, T., Cunnold, D. M., & Prinn, R. G. (1996). Evaluating chemical transport models: Comparison of effects of different CFC‑11 emission scenarios. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 101(D9), 14381–14385.

https://doi.org/10.1029/96JD00865↗.

Heaton, T. H. E., & Vogel, J. C. (1981). “Excess air” in groundwater. Journal of Hydrology, 50, 201–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(81)90070-6↗.

Herzberg, O., & Mazor, E. (1979). Hydrological applications of noble gases and temperature measurements in underground water systems: Examples from Israel. Journal of Hydrology, 41(3-4), 217–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(79)90063-5↗.

Ho, D. T., Schlosser, P., Smethie, W. M., & Simpson, H. J. (1998). Variability in atmospheric chlorofluorocarbons (CCl3F and CCl2F2) near a large urban area: Implications for groundwater dating. Environmental Science & Technology, 32(16), 2377–2382.

https://doi.org/10.1021/es980021h↗.

Horvatinčić, N. (1980). Radiocarbon and tritium measurements in water samples and application of isotopic analysis in hydrology. Fizika, 12(S2), 201–218. http://pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=PASCALGEODEBRGM8220254863↗.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (1995). Summary for policymakers and technical summary of the Working Group 1 Report. IPCC.

International Atomic Energy Agency/World Meteorological Organization (IAEA/MO). (2020). The Global Network of Isotopes in Precipitation (GNIP) database [Data set]. International Atomic Energy Agency.

http://www-naweb.iaea.org/napc/ih/IHS_resources_gnip.html↗.

Jenkins, W. J. (1981). Mass spectrometric measurement of tritium and [latex]_{}^{3}{He}[/latex]. In Proceedings of the consultation. group meeting on low-level tritium measurements, International Atomic Energy Agency, (pp. 179–189).

Jenkins, W. J., & Clarke, W. B. (1976). The distribution of [latex]_{}^{3}H[/latex] in the western Atlantic Ocean. Deep Sea Research and Oceanographic Abstracts, 23(6), 481–494.

https://doi.org/10.1016/0011-7471(76)90860-3↗.

Jurgens, B. C., Böhlke, J. K., & Eberts, S. M. (2012). TracerLPM (Version 1): An Excel® workbook for interpreting groundwater age distributions from environmental tracer data (Techniques and Methods Report 4-F3). US Geological Survey.

Katz, B. G., Lee, T. M., Plummer, L. N., & Busenberg, E. (1995). Chemical evolution of groundwater near a sinkhole lake, northern Florida: 1. Flow patterns, age of groundwater, and influence of lake water leakage. Water Resources Research, 31(6), 1549–1564. https://doi.org/10.1029/95WR00221↗.

Kaufman, S., & Libby, W. F. (1954). The natural distribution of tritium. Physical Review, 93(6), 1337.

Keutsch, F. N., & Saykally, R. J. (2001). Water clusters: Untangling the mysteries of the liquid, one molecule at a time. PNAS, 98(19), 10533–10540.

https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.191266498↗.

Kipfer, R., Aeschbach‑Hertig, W., Peeters, F., & Stute, M. (2002). Noble gases in lakes and ground waters. Reviews in mineralogy and geochemistry, 47(1), 615–700. https://doi.org/10.2138/rmg.2002.47.14↗.

Koh, D. C., Plummer, L. N., Busenberg, E., & Kim, Y. (2007). Evidence for terrigenic SF6 in groundwater from basaltic aquifers, Jeju Island, Korea: Implications for groundwater dating. Journal of Hydrology, 339(1-2), 93-104.

Kovács, T., Feng, W., Totterdill, A., Plane, J. M. C., Dhomse, S., Gómez‑Martín, J. C., Stiller, G. P., Haenel, F. J., Smith, C., Forster, P. M., García, R. R., Marsh, D. R., & Chipperfield, M. P. (2017). Determination of the atmospheric lifetime and global warming potential of sulfur hexafluoride using a three‑dimensional model, Atmospheric Chemistry & Physics, 17, 883–898. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-17-883-2017↗.

Krey, P. W., Lagomarsino, R. J., & Toonkel, L. E. (1977). Gaseous halogens in the atmosphere in 1975. Journal of Geophysical Research, 82(12), 1753-1766.

LaBolle, E. M., Fogg, G. E., & Eweis, J. B. (2006). Diffusive fractionation of [latex]_{}^{3}H[/latex] and [latex]_{}^{3}{He}[/latex] in groundwater and its impact on groundwater age estimates. Water Resources Research, 42(7). https://doi.org/10.1029/2005WR004756↗.

Lehmann, B. E., Davis, S. N., & Fabryka‑Martin, J. T. (1993). Atmospheric and subsurface sources of stable and radioactive nuclides used for groundwater dating. Water Resources Research, 29(7), 2027–2040. https://doi.org/10.1029/93WR00543↗.

Lippmann, J., Stute, M., Torgersen, T., Moser, D. P., Hall, J. A., Lin, L.,… & Onstott, T. C. (2003). Dating ultra‑deep mine waters with noble gases and [latex]_{}^{36}{Cl}[/latex], Witwatersrand Basin, South Africa. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 67(23), 4597–4619.

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7037(03)00414-9↗.

Lovelock, J. E. (1971). Atmospheric fluorine compounds as indicators of air movements. Nature, 230(5293), 379–379. https://doi.org/10.1038/230379a0↗.

Lovelock, J. E., Maggs, R. J., & Wade, R. J. (1973). Halogenated hydrocarbons in and over the Atlantic. Nature, 241(5386), 194–196. https://doi.org/10.1038/241194a0↗.

Lovley, D. R., & Woodward, J. C. (1992). Consumption of freons CFC‑11 and CFC‑12 by anaerobic sediments and soils. Environmental Science & Technology, 26(5), 925–929. https://doi.org/10.1021/es00029a009↗.

Lucas L. L., & Unterweger M. P. (2000). Comprehensive review and critical evaluation of the half‑life of tritium. Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards & Technology, 105(4), 541–549. https://doi.org/10.6028/jres.105.043↗.

Maiss, M., & Brenninkmeijer, C. A. (1998). Atmospheric [latex]{SF}_{6}[/latex]: Trends, sources, and prospects. Environmental Science & Technology, 32(20), 3077–3086.

https://doi.org/10.1021/es9802807↗.

Maloszewski, P., & Zuber, A. (1982). Determining the turnover time of groundwater systems with the aid of environmental tracers: I. Models and their applicability. Journal of Hydrology, 57(3–4), 207–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(82)90147-0↗.

Maloszewski, P., & Zuber, A. (1996). Lumped parameter models for the interpretation of environmental tracer data. In International Atomic Energy Agency (Ed.), Manual on mathematical models in isotope hydrogeology (TECDOC-910). (pp. 9–58). International Atomic Energy Agency.

Mamyrin, B. A., & Tolstikhin, I. N. (2013). Helium isotopes in nature. Elsevier.

Manning, A. H., & Solomon, D. K. (2003). Using noble gases to investigate mountain‑front recharge. Journal of Hydrology, 275(3–4), 194–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1694(03)00043-X↗.

Manning, A. H., Solomon, D. K., & Sheldon, A. L. (2003). Applications of a total dissolved gas pressure probe in ground water studies. Groundwater, 41(4), 440–448.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.2003.tb02378.x↗.

Marston, T. M., Parry, W. T., Bowman, J. R., & Solomon, D. K. (2012). Tritium content of clay minerals. Clays and Clay Minerals, 60(2), 186–199.

https://doi.org/10.1346/CCMN.2012.0600208↗.

McMahon, P. B., Carney, C. P., Poeter, E. P., & Peterson, S. M. (2010). Use of geochemical, isotopic, and age tracer data to develop models of groundwater flow for the purpose of water management, northern High Plains aquifer, USA. Applied Geochemistry, 25(6), 910–922. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2010.04.001↗.

McMahon, P. B., Plummer, L. N., Böhlke, J. K., Shapiro, S. D., & Hinkle, S. R. (2011). A comparison of recharge rates in aquifers of the United States based on groundwater‑age data. Hydrogeology Journal, 19(4), 779–800.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-011-0722-5↗.

Michel, R. L., Jurgens, B. C., and Young, M. B. (2018). Tritium deposition in precipitation in the United States, 1953–2012. US Geological Survey. https://doi.org/10.3133/sir20185086↗.

Mercury, L., Pinti, D. L., & Zeyen, H. (2004). The effect of the negative pressure of capillary water on atmospheric noble gas solubility in ground water and palaeotemperature reconstruction. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 223(1–2), 147–161.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2004.04.019↗

Molina, M. J., & Rowland, F. S. (1974). Stratospheric sink for chlorofluoromethanes: Chlorine atom‑catalysed destruction of ozone. Nature, 249(5460), 810–812.

https://doi.org/10.1038/249810a0↗.

Montzka, S. A., Butler, J. H., Elkins, J. W., Thompson, T. M., Clarke, A. D., & Lock, L. T. (1999). Present and future trends in the atmospheric burden of ozone‑depleting halogens. Nature, 398(6729), 690–694. https://doi.org/10.1038/19499↗.

Morgenstern, U., & Taylor, C. B. (2009). Ultra low‑level tritium measurement using electrolytic enrichment and LSC. Isotopes in Environmental and Health Studies, 45(2), 96–117. https://doi.org/10.1080/10256010902931194↗.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). (1976). U.S. standard atmosphere. NASA.

Noguchi, H., Fukutani, S., Yokoyama, S., & Kinouchi, N. (2001). Deposition of tritiated water vapour to a water surface in an outdoor field. Radiation Protection Dosimetry, 93(2), 167–172. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.rpd.a006425↗.

O’Brien, K. (1979). Secular variations in the production of cosmogenic isotopes in the Earth’s atmosphere. Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics, 84(A2), 423-431.

Oms, P. E., Du Bois, P. B., Dumas, F., Lazure, P., Morillon, M., Voiseux, C., Le Corre, C., Cossonnet, C., Solier, L., & Morin, P. (2019). Inventory and distribution of tritium in the oceans in 2016. Science of the Total Environment, 656, 1289–1303.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.11.448↗.

Oster, H., Sonntag, C., & Münnich, K. O. (1996). Groundwater age dating with chlorofluorocarbons. Water Resources Research, 32(10), 2989–3001.

https://doi.org/10.1029/96WR01775↗.

Peck, A. J. (1969). Entrapment, stability, and persistence of air bubbles in soil water. Soil Research, 7(2), 79–90. https://doi.org/10.1071/SR9690079↗.

Phillips, F. M., Mattick, J. L., Duval, T. A., Elmore, D., & Kubik, P. W. (1988). Chlorine 36 and tritium from nuclear weapons fallout as tracers for long‑term liquid and vapor movement in desert soils. Water Resources Research, 24(11), 1877–1891. https://doi.org/10.1029/WR024i011p01877↗.

Plummer, L. N., & Busenberg, E. (2006). Chlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere. In International Atomic Energy Agency (Ed.), Use of chlorofluorocarbons in hydrology: A guidebook (pp. 9–16). International Atomic Energy Agency. https://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/Pub1238_web.pdf↗.

Plummer, L. N., Busenberg, E., & Cook, P. G. (2006). Principles of chlorofluorocarbon dating. In International Atomic Energy Agency (Ed.), Use of chlorofluorocarbons in hydrology: A guidebook (pp. 17–30). International Atomic Energy Agency.

Plummer, L. N., Busenberg, E., Cook, P. G., Oster, H., Han, L. F., & Groening, M. (2006). Selected case studies using CFC data. International Atomic Energy Agency

Plummer, L. N., Busenberg, E., & Han, L. F. (2006). CFCs in binary mixtures of young and old groundwater. In International Atomic Energy Agency (Ed.), Use of chlorofluorocarbons in hydrology: A guidebook (pp. 59–72). International Atomic Energy Agency.

Plummer, N., Dunkle, S. A., & Busenberg, E. (1993). Data on chlorofluorocarbons (CCl3F and CCl2F2) as dating tools and hydrologic tracers in shallow ground water of the Delmarva Peninsula (No. 93-484). US Geological Survey. https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr93484↗.

Poreda, R. J., Cerling, T. E., & Salomon, D. K. (1988). Tritium and helium isotopes as hydrologic tracers in a shallow unconfined aquifer. Journal of Hydrology, 103(1–2), 1–9.

https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(88)90002-9↗.

Poulsen, D. L., Cook, P. G., & Dogramaci, S. (2020). Excess air correction of [latex]{SF}_{6}[/latex] and other dissolved gases in groundwater impacted by compressed air from drilling or well development. Water Resources Research, 56(8), e2020WR028054.

https://doi.org/10.1029/2020WR028054↗.

Puckett, L. J., Tesoriero, A. J., & Dubrovsky, N. M. (2011). Nitrogen contamination of surficial aquifers ‑ A growing legacy. Environmental Science & Technology, 45(3), 839–844. https://doi.org/10.1021/es1038358↗.

Reilly, T. E., Plummer, L. N., Phillips, P. J., & Busenberg, E. (1994). The use of simulation and multiple environmental tracers to quantify groundwater flow in a shallow aquifer. Water Resources Research, 30(2), 421–433. https://doi.org/10.1029/93WR02655↗.

Ronen, D., Berkowitz, B., & Magaritz, M. (1989). The development and influence of gas bubbles in phreatic aquifers under natural flow conditions. Transport in Porous Media, 4(3), 295–306. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00138041↗.

Rozanski, K., Gonfiantini, R., & Araguás‑Araguás, L. (1991). Tritium in the global atmosphere: Distribution patterns and recent trends. Journal of Physics G: Nuclear and Particle Physics, 17(S), S523. https://doi.org/10.1088/0954-3899/17/S/053↗.

Sander, R. (1999). Compilation of Henry’s law constants for inorganic and organic species of potential importance in environmental chemistry (Version 3). https://www.ready.noaa.gov/documents/TutorialX/files/Chem_henry.pdf.

Sanford, W. E., Shropshire, R. G., & Solomon, D. K. (1996). Dissolved gas tracers in groundwater: Simplified injection, sampling, and analysis. Water Resources Research, 32(6), 1635–1642. https://doi.org/10.1029/96WR00599↗.

Sano, Y., Marty, B., & Burnard, P. (2013). Noble gases in the atmosphere. In P. Burnard (Ed.), The noble gases as geochemical tracers. Advances in isotope geochemistry (pp. 17–31). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-28836-4_2↗.

Scanlon, B. R., Healy, R. W., & Cook, P. G. (2002). Choosing appropriate techniques for quantifying groundwater recharge. Hydrogeology Journal, 10(1), 18–39.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-001-0176-2↗.

Schlosser, P., Stute, M., Dörr, H., Sonntag, C., & Münnich, K. O. (1988). Tritium/[latex]_{}^{3}{He}[/latex] dating of shallow groundwater. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 89(3–4), 353–362. https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-821X(88)90122-7↗.

Schlosser, P., Stute, M., Sonntag, C., & Otto Münnich, K. (1989). Tritiogenic [latex]_{}^{3}{He}[/latex] in shallow groundwater. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 94(3–4), 245–256. https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-821X(89)90144-1↗.

Schultz, T. R., Randall, J. H., Wilson, L. G., & Davis, S. N. (1976). Tracing sewage effluent recharge, Tucson, Arizona. Groundwater, 14(6), 463–471. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.1976.tb03140.x↗.

Sepall, O., & Mason, S. G. (1960). Vapor/liquid partition of tritium in tritiated water. Canadian Journal of Chemistry, 38(10), 2024–2025.

Shapiro, S. D., LeBlanc, D., Schlosser, P., & Ludin, A. (1999). Characterizing a sewage plume using the 3H‐3He dating technique. Groundwater, 37(6), 861-878.

Simmonds, P. G., Rigby, M., Manning, A. J., Park, S., Stanley, K. M., McCulloch, A., Henne, S., Graziosi, F., Maione, M., Arduini, J., Reimann, S., Vollmer, M. K., Mühle, J., O’Doherty, S., Young, D., Kummel, P. B., Fraser, P. J., Weiss, R., F., Salameh, P. K., …Prinn, R. G. (2020). The increasing atmospheric burden of the greenhouse gas sulfur hexafluoride (SF 6). Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 20(12), 7271–7290.

https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-7271-2020↗.

Solomon, D. K. (2000). [latex]_{}^{4}{He}[/latex] in groundwater. In P. G. Cook & A. L. Herczeg (Eds.), Environmental tracers in subsurface hydrology (pp. 425–439). Springer.

Solomon, D. K., & Cerling, T. E. (1987). The annual carbon dioxide cycle in a montane soil: Observations, modeling, and implications for weathering. Water Resources Research, 23(12), 2257–2265. https://doi.org/10.1029/WR023i012p02257↗.

Solomon, D. K., & Cook, P. G. (2000). [latex]_{}^{3}H[/latex] and [latex]_{}^{3}{He}[/latex]. In P. G. Cook & A. L. Herczeg (Eds.), Environmental tracers in subsurface hydrology (pp. 397–424). Springer.

Solomon, D. K., & Sudicky, E. A. (1991). Tritium and Helium 3 isotope ratios for direct estimation of spatial variations in groundwater recharge. Water Resources Research, 27(9), 2309–2319. https://doi.org/10.1029/91WR01446↗.

Solomon, D. K., Cole, E., & Leising, J. F. (2011). Excess air during aquifer storage and recovery in an arid basin (Las Vegas Valley, USA). Hydrogeology Journal, 19(1), 187–194. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-010-0659-0↗.

Solomon, D. K., Cook, P. G., & Plummer, L. N. (2006). Models of groundwater ages and residence times. In International Atomic Energy Agency (Ed.), Use of chlorofluorocarbons in hydrology: A guidebook (pp. 73–88). International Atomic Energy Agency.

Solomon, D. K., Genereux, D. P., Plummer, L. N., & Busenberg, E. (2010). Testing mixing models of old and young groundwater in a tropical lowland rain forest with environmental tracers. Water Resources Research, 46(4), W04518.

https://doi.org/10.1029/2009WR008341↗.

Solomon, D. K., Plummer, L. N., Busenberg, E., & Cook, P. G. (2006). Practical applications of CFCs in hydrological investigations. In International Atomic Energy Agency (Ed.), Use of chlorofluorocarbons in hydrology: A guidebook (pp. 89–104). International Atomic Energy Agency.

Solomon, D. K., Poreda, R. J., Schiff, S. L., & Cherry, J. A. (1992). Tritium and helium: 3 as groundwater age tracers in the Borden Aquifer. Water Resources Research, 28(3), 741–755. https://doi.org/10.1029/91WR02689↗.

Solomon, D. K., Schiff, S. L., Poreda, R. J., & Clarke, W. B. (1993). A validation of the [latex]_{}^{3}H[/latex]/[latex]_{}^{3}{He}[/latex] method for determining groundwater recharge. Water Resources Research, 29(9), 2951–2962. https://doi.org/10.1029/93WR00968↗.

Solomon, D. K., Gilmore, T. E., Solder, J. E., Kimball, B., & Genereux, D. P. (2015). Evaluating an unconfined aquifer by analysis of age‐dating tracers in stream water. Water Resources Research, 51(11), 8883-8899.

Stanley, R. H., Baschek, B., Lott, D. E., III, & Jenkins, W. J. (2009). A new automated method for measuring noble gases and their isotopic ratios in water samples. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 10(5), Q05008. https://doi.org/10.1029/2009GC002429↗.

Stonestrom, D. A., Andraski, B. J., Cooper, C. A., Mayers, C. J., & Michel, R. L. (2013). On the conversion of tritium units to mass fractions for hydrologic applications. Isotopes in Environmental and Health Studies, 49(2), 250–256.

https://doi.org/10.1080/10256016.2013.766610↗.

Stute, M., Forster, M., Frischkorn, H., Serejo, A., Clark, J. F., Schlosser, P., Broecker, W. S., & Bonani, G. (1995). Cooling of tropical Brazil (5 °C) during the last glacial maximum. Science, 269(5222), 379–383. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.269.5222.379↗.

Sun, T., Hall, C. M., Castro, M. C., Lohmann, K. C., & Goblet, P. (2008). Excess air in the noble gas groundwater paleothermometer: A new model based on diffusion in the gas phase. Geophysical Research Letters, 35(19), L19401. https://doi.org/10.1029/2008GL035018↗.

Taylor, C. B. (1968). A comparison of tritium and strontium‐90 fallout in the Southern Hemisphere. Tellus, 20(4), 559-576.

Terzer‑Wassmuth, S., Araguás‑Araguás, L. J., Copia, L., & Wassenaar, L. I. (2022). High spatial resolution prediction of tritium ([latex]_{}^{3}H[/latex]) in contemporary global precipitation. Scientific Reports, 12(1), 10271. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-14227-5↗.

Thompson, G. M., Hayes, J. M., & Davis, S. N. (1974). Fluorocarbon tracers in hydrology. Geophysical Research Letters, 1(4), 177–180. https://doi.org/10.1029/GL001i004p00177↗.

Tolstikhin, I. N., & Kamensky, I. L. (1969). Determination of groundwater age by the T[latex]_{}^{3}H[/latex] method. Geochemistry International, 6, 810–811.

Torgersen, T., Jenkins, W. J., & Clarke, W. B. (1979). The tritium/helium‑3 method in hydrology. In International symposium on isotope hydrology, proceedings series (Vol. 2) (pp. 917–929) [Symposium]. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), June 19–23, 1978, Neuherberg, Germany. International Atomic Energy Agency.

http://inis.iaea.org/Search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:10465819↗.

Turnadge, C., & Smerdon, B. D. (2014). A review of methods for modelling environmental tracers in groundwater: Advantages of tracer concentration simulation. Journal of Hydrology, 519, 3674–3689. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.056↗.

United Nations (UN). (1998). Kyoto protocol to the United Nations framework convention on climate change (FCCC/CP/1997/L.7/Add.1). United Nations.

https://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/kpeng.pdf↗.

United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP). (1987). Montreal protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer. United Nations Environmental Programme. https://www.unep.org/ozonaction/who-we-are/about-montreal-protocol↗.

United States Geological Survey (USGS). (2016). GAMACTT: Groundwater age mixtures and contaminant trends tool (Version 1) [Computer software]. US Geological Survey. https://ca.water.usgs.gov/projects/gamactt/↗.

Visser, A., Broers, H. P., & Bierkens, M. F. P. (2007). Dating degassed groundwater with [latex]_{}^{3}H/_{}^{3}{He}[/latex]. Water Resources Research, 43(10), W10434.

https://doi.org/10.1029/2006WR005847↗.

Visser, A., Fourré, E., Barbecot, F., Aquilina, L., Labasque, T., Vergnaud, V., & Esser, B. K. (2014). Intercomparison of tritium and noble gases analyses, [latex]_{}^{3}H/_{}^{3}{He}[/latex] ages and derived parameters excess air and recharge temperature. Applied Geochemistry, 50, 130–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2014.03.005↗.

Visser, A., Schaap, J. D., Broers, H. P., & Bierkens, M. F. P. (2009). Degassing of [latex]_{}^{3}H/_{}^{3}{He}[/latex], CFCs and [latex]{SF}_{6}[/latex] by denitrification: Measurements and two‑phase transport simulations. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology, 103(3–4), 206–218.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconhyd.2008.10.013↗.

Volk, C. M., Elkins, J. W., Fahey, D. W., Dutton, G. S., Gilligan, J. M., Loewenstein, M., Podolske, J. R., Chan, K. R., & Gunson, M. R. (1997). Evaluation of source gas lifetimes from stratospheric observations. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 102(D21), 25543–25564. https://doi.org/10.1029/97JD02215↗.

Wanninkhof, R., Ledwell, J. R., Broecker, W. S., & Hamilton, M. (1987). Gas exchange on Mono Lake and Crowley Lake, California. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 92(C13), 14567–14580. https://doi.org/10.1029/JC092iC13p14567↗.

Wanninkhof, R., Ledwell, J. R., & Watson, A. J. (1991). Analysis of sulfur hexafluoride in seawater. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 96(C5), 8733–8740.

https://doi.org/10.1029/91JC00104↗.

Wanninkhof, R., Mulholland, P. J., & Elwood, J. W. (1990). Gas exchange rates for a first‐order stream determined with deliberate and natural tracers. Water Resources Research, 26(7), 1621–1630. https://doi.org/10.1029/WR026i007p01621↗.

Warner, M. J., & Weiss, R. F. (1985). Solubilities of chlorofluorocarbons 11 and 12 in water and seawater. Deep Sea Research Part A. Oceanographic Research Papers, 32(12), 1485–1497. https://doi.org/10.1016/0198-0149(85)90099-8↗.

Watson, A. J., & Liddicoat, M. I. (1985). Recent history of atmospheric trace gas concentrations deduced from measurements in the deep sea: Application to sulphur hexafluoride and carbon tetrachloride. Atmospheric Environment (1967), 19(9), 1477–1484. https://doi.org/10.1016/0004-6981(85)90285-9↗.

Weiss, R. F. (1970). The solubility of nitrogen, oxygen and argon in water and seawater. Deep Sea Research and Oceanographic Abstracts, 17(4), 721–735). https://doi.org/10.1016/0011-7471(70)90037-9↗.

Weiss, R. F. (1971). Solubility of helium and neon in water and seawater. Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data, 16(2), 235–241. https://doi.org/10.1021/je60049a019↗.

Weiss, R. F., & Kyser, T. K. (1978). Solubility of krypton in water and sea water. Journal of Chemical and Engineering Data, 23(1), 69–72. https://doi.org/10.1021/je60076a014↗.

Wells, M. J., Gilmore, T. E., Mittelstet, A. R., Snow, D., & Sibray, S. S. (2018). Assessing decadal trends of a nitrate‑contaminated shallow aquifer in western Nebraska using groundwater isotopes, age‑dating, and monitoring. Water, 10(8), 1047.

https://doi.org/10.3390/w10081047↗.

Wells, M. J., Gilmore, T. E., Nelson, N., Mittelstet, A., & Böhlke, J. K. (2021). Determination of vadose zone and saturated zone nitrate lag times using long‑term groundwater monitoring data and statistical machine learning. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 25(2), 811–829. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-811-2021↗.

Wilson, R. D., & Mackay, D. M. (1996). [latex]{SF}_{6}[/latex] as a conservative tracer in saturated media with high intragranular porosity or high organic carbon content. Groundwater, 34(2), 241–249. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.1996.tb01884.x↗.

World Health Organisation (WHO). (2008). Guidelines for drinking-water quality: Second addendum to third edition.Vol. 1: Recommendations. World Health Organisation. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/204412/9789241547604_eng.pdf↗.

License

Age Dating Young Groundwater Copyright © 2026 by D. Kip Solomon and Troy E. Gilmore. All Rights Reserved.

Share This Book